Breakdown Of Fats In The Body: Features Of The Process

Fats are organic compounds that are esters of glycerol (polyhydric alcohol) and three fatty acids. Their other name - triglycerides (or less common - triacylglycerides) just reflect the biochemical features of their structure.

It is important to understand that triglycerides can not only be ingested with food, but are also quite successfully formed in the multifunctional factory of the liver, as well as in adipose tissue.

Functions of fats in the body

1. Energy - from the point of view of the accounting of a prudent organism, this particular class of compounds is the most profitable source of energy: 1 gram of fat when burned in industrial furnaces of mitochondria gives 9 kilocalories - 2 times more than proteins and carbohydrates.

   Let us turn to biochemistry: the sequential process of converting glucose (first to pyruvic acid, and then, subject to the presence of oxygen, to acetyl-CoA, a universal product of the metabolic transformations of fats, carbohydrates and proteins, the final raw material, which, in fact, will go further conveyor belt for energy production, the inclusion of acetyl-CoA in the Krebs cycle and the final stage - the transfer of electrons and protons through special respiratory chains of mitochondria): at the output it gives 38 ATP molecules, while triglycerides - more than 300-400 (depending on the type included in their fatty acid structure).

   Economical, rational and relatively cheap - an ideal option. Ideal, but NOT universal.

   Fats in the process of digestion, which we will discuss in more detail below, are decomposed into their constituent parts: fatty acids and glycerol. This is a necessary condition for their absorption: after all, a bulky triglyceride molecule with long chains of fatty acids simply will not pass through the doorway of the cell - even with outside help.

   After the intestines, the next stop for already individual elements (in particular, fatty acids) will be blood - a universal water slide that delivers the nutrients they need to the cells. However, in serum, these organic molecules do not circulate in a free form, but in complex with plasma proteins - albumin - large and heavy. It is not surprising that these compounds simply cannot pass through, overcome the barrier that separates the blood in the vessels from the nervous tissue of the brain. The blood-brain barrier remains impermeable for them, which means that the brain will not be able to use this type of raw material for energy.

   In addition, an important condition for the oxidation of fatty acids is the presence of mitochondria - in fact, those furnaces in which they will burn. And here, too, lies an important nuance: after all, not all cells of the human body have these organelles. So, for example, erythrocytes are deprived of them, therefore the only mechanism for obtaining energy for them is anaerobic (occurring in oxygen-free conditions) glycolysis, and glucose will be the substrate for it.

2. Structural - fats are one of the key structural units of cell membranes (everyone remembers the bilipid layer from school lessons). In addition, they are part of many tissues - including the nervous one.

   So, ½ of the dry residue of the white matter of the brain is precisely lipids. The myelin sheath of the nerves, which provides an isolated and fast conduction of an impulse along the nerve fibers, also consists to a greater extent of fats (moreover, cholesterol occupies 90% of their total amount).

3. Thermal insulation - help maintain a constant temperature and prevent hypothermia due to its low thermal conductivity.

1. Protective - protect internal organs from mechanical damage, act as a shock absorber during falls, bumps, and movement (for example, fatty tissue of the foot).

2. They are a substrate (in particular, cholesterol) for the formation of sex hormones, adrenal hormones, vitamin D, bile acids, signaling molecules, prostaglandins and other inflammatory mediators.

3. They serve as a necessary condition for the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E, K.

4. Reserve - a kind of energy airbag. In specialized fat cells (adipocytes) they are stored in large droplets.

5. Fats are a source of endogenous water. When 1 kg of fat is oxidized, about 1.1 kg of water is released - that is why, contrary to popular misconception, the ships of the desert - camels - store not water in their humps, but fat.

Types of fats

According to the biochemical structure, all lipids are divided into two groups:

1. Simple - their molecule includes carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (C, H, O).

   This group just includes triglycerides, as well as fatty acids, fatty alcohols, waxes and other compounds.

   Let us dwell in more detail on fatty acids, which, depending on the type of bond, in turn, are also divided into several categories:

   • Saturated - in other words, having only single bonds between carbon atoms. These include propionic, palmitic, stearic acids.

     Sources of saturated fatty acids include: butter, animal fats, palm oil, cocoa butter, lard, coconut oil, and ghee.

   • Unsaturated - contain a double or triple bond, and, depending on their number, can be represented by mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids.

   • Omega-3 and Omega-6 are known to be polyunsaturated fatty acids, and Omega-9 to monounsaturated fatty acids.

   Fatty acids can be irreplaceable - that is, their formation by the body is impossible, therefore the only sources of income are food products and biological additives, as well as replaceable - just our body can synthesize them on its own.

2. Complex - in the structure of which, in addition to the three elements listed above, there are others - as a rule, phosphorus, nitrogen or sulfur (P, N, S).

Omega-3 fatty acids are one of the most commonly prescribed supplements. So, according to analysts, by 2022 the total profit from their sales will bring more than $4 billion.

They are synthesized from the essential alpha-linolenic acid - thus, the body can get it only with food or nutraceuticals - and have double (“unsaturated”) bonds between carbon atoms. Among them, the most interesting are eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) acids.

Fish is traditionally considered the main source of omega-3s, although they are also found in eggs, milk and vegetables.

Omega-3 PUFAs have been shown in many studies (although the literature on this topic is rather inconsistent) to be associated with anti-inflammatory effects - and in this respect they are completely antagonistic to omega-6s.

In a clinical trial involving 20 healthy middle-aged volunteers, people took a high daily dose of a mixed DHA/EPA supplement for 8 weeks, both in capsule form and with a functional drink rich in these omega-3 fatty acids. The use of the latter, as noted later, had a much greater impact on the gut microbiome. In particular, there was a significant increase in bacterial strains producing butyrate, one of the most common (along with acetate and propionate) short-chain fatty acids present in the intestinal lumen as end products of dietary fiber fermentation by resident bacteria. The importance of their presence is associated with the anti-inflammatory ability of these organic substances.

The antimicrobial properties of fatty acids largely depend on the length of their chain, on the presence and spatial orientation of double bonds. At the same time, it is emphasized that it is unsaturated fatty acids that show a similar effect to a greater extent than saturated fatty acids with the same carbon chain length.

Scientists note that omega-3 fatty acids can change the composition of the bacterial microflora and increase the number of bifidobacteria - the latter reduce intestinal permeability.

In addition to the anti-inflammatory effect, researchers also note the effect of omega-3 PUFAs on the neurotransmission of serotonin and dopamine by changing the composition of phospholipids and, as a result, the fluidity of cell membranes. It is believed that this may underlie the development of not only somatic, but also mental diseases in conditions of deficiency of these organic compounds. Evidence of this was impressive findings: levels of omega-3 fatty acids were significantly reduced in the red blood cells of patients suffering from depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety and schizophrenia. These results form the basis of the American Psychiatric Association's recommendations, as the specially created Subcommittee on Fatty Acids provides the following guidance: "Patients with mood disorders

Omega-6 PUFAs are formed from linoleic acid, which, like alpha-linolenic acid, is indispensable. They differ from omega-3s only in the location of the double bond - and this small difference in functional terms plays a huge role.

The main sources of linoleic acid are vegetable oils: sunflower, corn and safflower. Gamma-linolenic and arachidonic acids are formed from it in a number of further biochemical transformations - the latter, by the way, will be the raw material for the production of inflammatory signaling molecules: prostaglandins and leukotrienes.

Some authors believe that in the process of evolution, people adhered to an equal ratio of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids in their diet - approximately 1:1. Now, in the modern Western diet, this ratio is 20:1 - and all because of the increased content of omega-6 in food.

Such an excess content of omega-6 PUFA contributes to the development of cardiovascular diseases, increases the incidence of oncology, and affects the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases.

However, this does not mean that omega-6 fatty acids should be eliminated from the diet: for example, the use of evening primrose oil, rich in gamma-linolenic acid, correlated with an improvement in the course of atopic dermatitis.

Moreover, the same acid in the composition of borage seed oil was used to treat various degenerative diseases and at the same time it was noted that it did not have toxicity to DNA (in Drosophila models), increased the lifespan of these insects, and pronounced antioxidant effects.

The use of borage oil was also effective in the context of lowering cholesterol levels in the blood serum - these effects are supposedly based on increased oxidation of fatty acids in rat liver peroxisomes (organelles), increased activity of carnitine palmitoyltransferase (mitochondrial enzyme, which is one of the representatives of carnitine transport systems that ensure the delivery of active fatty acids from the cytoplasm to the mitochondrial matrix) and acyl-CoA oxidase, which is also involved in the metabolism of fatty acids.

Omega-9 monounsaturated fatty acids have only one double bond. These include oleic, elaidic, midic and other acids, the main food sources of which are:

• Olive oil

• Avocado

• Hazelnuts and walnuts

• Peanut

Studies on their effects are quite controversial - for example, laboratory mice in which sepsis was induced by ligation of the caecum and its puncture were treated with omega-9 supplements for 14 days. They have been shown to be associated with increased levels of anti-inflammatory signaling molecules (particularly interleukin-10) and decreased pro-inflammatory cytokines (such as tissue tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 1, beta) in peritoneal fluid; the migration of neutrophils from the blood into the abdominal cavity decreased, as well as the bacterial load. In addition, the use of omega-9 prevented an increase in the level of corticosterone (hormone of the adrenal cortex, which plays a minor role in humans, while

The essence of the process of splitting fats in the human body

In an adult body, fat breakdown begins in the small intestine - in particular, in the duodenum. At the first stage, it is bile that plays a key role - a golden-green secret synthesized by liver cells.

In response to the intake of fatty foods, the gallbladder contracts and bile is secreted into the intestinal lumen. It performs a number of important functions:

• Activates pancreatic enzymes.

• Emulsifies fats - they are mixed with water. In other words, a large, thick drop of fat is broken into small ones - this speeds up the process of splitting by pancreatic lipases.

• Helps in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.

• Neutralizes the acidic contents of the stomach.

• Activates the motility of the small intestine.

• Prevents excessive bacterial and fungal growth, has antimicrobial and anthelmintic activity.

The bile secreted by hepatocytes is 97% water - that's why an adequate drinking regimen is so important. The remaining 3% are bile acids, cholesterol, mucus (mucin) and phospholipids.

Bile acids - one of the most important components of bile - are formed by the biochemical transformation of cholesterol. Their pool is very limited - therefore, most of the intestine is absorbed back and enters the liver, a smaller part is excreted in the feces. In the process of their transformations, they also form complexes with two amino acids - taurine and glycine, the use of which has recently proven itself as an effective treatment and prevention of both carbohydrate and lipid metabolism disorders.

In the absence of adequate bile production (due to viral hepatitis / cirrhosis / metastases / non-alcoholic fatty liver disease) or in violation of its outflow, observed in various helminthiases (in particular, invasion by the liver fluke), cholelithiasis and / or SIBO, normal splitting and digestion of fats.

So, after emulsification, lipases (intestinal and pancreatic) are connected - they break down triglycerides into glycerol and three higher fatty acids - the latter are sent to the mitochondrial ovens, where they are included in a series of transformations in the energy production factory.

No less important from the point of view of the clinic is the fact that pancreatic lipase is the most delicate and fastidious enzyme secreted by pancreatic cells. Violations in its work, as a rule, occur the earliest in comparison with other adverse changes in the structure and function of this organ.

Where and why does fat accumulate?

There are two main types of adipose tissue:

1. Subcutaneous fat layer. It is present in all parts of the body, but everywhere its volume is different. In a person of normal physique, subcutaneous fat is distributed more or less evenly throughout the body. But obese people can have a significant skew in the distribution of fat: as a rule, its volume increases faster on the abdomen, hips, legs, sometimes in the shoulders and neck.

2. Visceral (internal) fat. It accumulates around the internal organs and is the most dangerous.

Features of fat metabolism in men and women

However, there are differences: in particular, the complexity and diversity of all processes in women compared to their simpler flow in men (compare this with a huge panel of buttons on one screen and a single lever on the second) is achieved, to a greater extent, precisely by cyclicality - the representatives of the fair sex have a successive change of conductors in the orchestra of hormones (at least, it should be normal).

Sex hormones play one of the leading roles in the mechanisms of adipose tissue deposition - they form the so-called female (due to its localization in the femoral-gluteal region) and male phenotypes.

Adipose tissue, as you know, along with the ovaries produces estrogens. It is not surprising that the classification of obesity even distinguishes such a type as gynoid - obesity according to the female type or pear type. A particularly striking example is middle-aged men with overweight - take a closer look at the predominant localization of adipose tissue in them: it accumulates in the chest, hips and lower abdomen.

Abdominal obesity is no less characteristic - it is often replaced by being characterized as a "beer belly" - and yet the issue of phytoestrogens in this common alcoholic drink has been raised repeatedly!

In adipose tissue, the aromatase enzyme is expressed, which catalyzes the conversion of androgens to estrogens. In addition, it notes the presence of receptors for the latter.

Sex hormones directly regulate the activity of lipoprotein lipase, which breaks down triglycerides as part of their transport carriers in blood plasma (chylomicrons and very low density lipoproteins), thereby affecting the level of fats in the blood and the risk of atherosclerosis.

In women, lipoprotein lipase obeys the commands of estrogens - and its activity is much higher and more effective in its manifestations in fat cells in the thighs and buttocks compared to subcutaneous fat in the abdomen.

After the onset of menopause (and the cessation, respectively, of the formation of hormones by the ovaries), fat is redistributed to the abdominal region due to a decrease in the activity of this enzyme and a decrease in the size of adipocytes in the femoral-gluteal region.

No less important is the effect of progesterone - its role becomes leading in the second, so-called "luteal" phase of the cycle. It competes for receptors with the hormones of the adrenal cortex (glucocorticoids) - and this is not surprising, given the original source of their synthesis (cholesterol) and the directly intertwined biochemical reactions of their formation.

Experiments on rats have shown that males have a much more stable diet, while the frequency and number of meals varied significantly throughout the cycle in females, and with surgical removal of the ovaries, they developed a condition such as polyphagia - a violation of eating behavior , characterized by increased appetite and a constant feeling of need for food. Moreover, the introduction of estradiol preparations eliminated these manifestations.

The exact mechanism of the interaction between estrogen and appetite regulation is not yet explained, but it is believed that this is partly due to the regulation by these hormones of the formation of leptin, which is responsible for the manifestations of satiety, in adipose tissue, as well as from the presence of receptors for it in the ovaries.

Assessment of disorders of fat metabolism

1. Secretory pancreatic insufficiency - it must be taken into account that lipase deficiency develops earlier and is more pronounced (since the lack of pancreatic proteases is compensated by intestinal enzymes, and amylases that break down carbohydrates are compensated by intestinal and salivary amylases).

   It is recommended to select, together with a nutritionist, suitable enzymes - plant or animal.

2. Violation of the synthetic function of the liver.

3. Worm infestation - in particular, a liver fluke that enters the body, as a rule, along with unwashed greens, watered when grown from a pond or any other source of stagnant water. Clinical manifestations may include:

   • Hepatomegaly is an enlargement of the liver.

   • Nausea.

   • Vomit.

   • Urticaria.

   • Increased levels of eosinophils.

   • Weight loss.

   • Weakness and malaise.

    

   An interesting fact: despite the bactericidal properties of bile, representatives of nematodes, roundworms, have recently been increasingly found in the gallbladder, which once again speaks of their amazing ability to adapt to adverse conditions.

   In the bile ducts, in addition to parasitic worms, protozoa also like to settle - for example, amoeba.

4. Lack of vitamin C - acts as a coenzyme in the hydroxylation reactions necessary for the synthesis of bile components.

5. Gallstone disease - characterized by the formation of stones (cholesterol or pigment) in the gallbladder and / or ducts.

   Excess cholesterol is observed with excessive intake of carbohydrates from food, with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and leads to a decrease in bile flow.

6. Violation of the processes of methylation (transfer of the CH3 group), which is necessary for the formation of phosphatidylcholine, the phospholipid component of bile.

1. Deficiencies of taurine and glycine are usually accompanied by a violation of methylation reactions and the accumulation, as a result, of homocysteine.

2. Violation of the integrity of the intestinal epithelium is another unfavorable factor affecting the deterioration of nutrient absorption in general.

3. Failure of the hypothalamus, the conductor of all peripheral glands.

4. Violation of the thyroid gland, reproductive system and pituitary gland.

5. Jaundice, inflammation of the pancreas and other diseases.

6. SIBO (bacterial overgrowth syndrome) - it is important to understand that with a decrease in the secretion of bile, which has bactericidal properties, the number of microbes in the intestine also increases, which, in the course of their development and metabolism, release gas - this contributes to a violation of the secretion of both pancreatic juice and bile ( (remember that both ducts open together into the duodenum).

Obesity score

1. Clinical signs and symptoms:

   • Increase in body weight.

   • Fatigue and drowsiness.

   • Shortness of breath and snoring.

   • Varicose veins and hemorrhoids.

   • Sweating.

   • Acne.

   • Constipation.

   • Hyperandrogenism with its characteristic manifestations (hirsutism - excessive male pattern hair growth, anovulation, oily skin).

   • Erectile dysfunction in men.

2. Laboratory diagnostics:

   • Fasting insulin >5-6 mmol/l.

   • Glucose on an empty stomach> 5.5 mmol / l.

   • Glycated hemoglobin - displays the average blood sugar for 3-4 months (life and circulation of red blood cells) > 6.5%.

   • Triglycerides > 1.7 mmol/l.

   • LDL (low density lipoprotein)> 3 mmol / l.

   • HDL (high-density lipoprotein, anti-atherogenic) < 1 mmol/l in men and < 1.2 mmol/l in women.

Causes and consequences of lipid metabolism disorders

1. Poor nutrition and excess food waste in the diet. “We are what we eat” is a golden axiom for those who want to have a beautiful, toned, and most importantly, healthy body.

   Why, if expensive, high-quality fuel is poured into cars - and everything is done so that they perform their specified functions longer and better, then our body should be an exception? It is always unpleasant, both financially and emotionally, to change an unusable part and fix problems that arise (especially if they affected a really important mechanism - for example, an engine), and you never know if you bought an original replacement or a fake.

   Leave 90% of your diet clean—make the majority of it fresh vegetables and fruits, meat, fish, seafood, and healthy sources of fat. The remaining 10% can occasionally account for refined sugars and sources of trans fats so beloved in the realities of the modern world. However, we are more than sure that your receptors, having adapted, will simply stop perceiving them as a treat.

   Do a little experiment: give up store-bought sweets for a short time - two weeks will be enough. Then break off a piece of milk chocolate and follow the immediate sensations: it will seem to you so sugary-sweet that it will cramp your teeth.

   It's all about dopamine and the reward system, which, like drugs, is affected by sugar. Dopamine is the hormone of lust and desire: we want something, we build castles in the air in our heads, and in response, it pushes us to action - take a stone and go hunting for a mammoth. But just like nicotine, alcohol, heroin, dopamine is never enough: the receptors adapt and demand more and more.

2. Lack of physical activity. The notorious 10,000 steps a day is the rule that should hang on every refrigerator instead of “do not eat after 6 pm”.

   Moreover, try to evenly distribute the load (climb the stairs, not the elevator; walk, if possible, on foot from work; wash the floors in the apartment), and not “go out” all in one or two hours during the walk (although the latter, no doubt are also very important).

3. Lack of sleep - 7-8 hours - this is the gold standard necessary to maintain the physiological functions of the body, the normal process of learning and memory, emotional stability.

4. Non-observance of circadian biorhythms - it is necessary to go to bed no later than 22-23.00, when the peak of melatonin secretion begins - a powerful antioxidant and the main antagonist of the stress hormone - cortisol.

   In addition, many other hormones are tied to the sleep cycle: leptin and ghrelin, which are responsible for satiety and hunger, respectively, growth hormone (growth hormone with a powerful fat-burning function) and even TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone).

   When you do not get enough sleep, the likelihood of overeating is much higher - this is due to the previously mentioned leptin.

5. A positive energy balance—in other words, you get more than you spend—is good in many ways, but not calories. The excess of incoming nutrients will be stored in the form of adipose tissue: after all, we all know how stingy and greedy the human body is in this regard.

6. Polymorphism in the FTO gene (fat mass and obesity-associated) - it is believed that it affects the specific centers of hunger and satiety in one of the key brain structures - the hypothalamus.

1. Violation of the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and subsequent manifestations and disorders.

   So, vitamin A deficiency is accompanied by:

   • Decrease in twilight vision (with mild insufficiency) up to its complete loss (in more severe cases).

   • Follicular keratosis.

   • Decreased secretion of immunoglobulin class A.

   • Inhibition of growth of epithelial tissue.

   Symptoms and consequences of vitamin D deficiency:

   • Rickets in children and osteomalacia (softening of the bones) in adults.

   • Osteoporosis.

   • Autoimmune diseases.

   • Cardiovascular diseases.

   • Psychiatric disorders, in particular depression.

   • Obesity.

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   Vitamin E deficiency is characterized by:

   • neurological disorders.

   • hemolytic anemia.

   • lipid peroxidation.

   Vitamin K deficiency leads to:

   • An increase in the duration of bleeding (more precisely, prothrombin time - an indicator of the functional activity of coagulation factors).

   • Deposition of calcium in soft tissues.

   • Violations of calcification of bones and teeth.

2. The development of steatorrhea, characterized by an excess amount of fat in the stool.

3. Syndrome of excessive bacterial and fungal growth (due to a violation and / or a decrease in the outflow of bile).

4. Stone formation in the gallbladder and / or ducts (due to an increase in the concentration of cholesterol - so, normally, there should be at least 7 molecules of bile acids and at least 2 molecules of phosphatidylcholine per 1 molecule of cholesterol).

5. Constipation (bile - a stimulant of intestinal motility).

6. Nausea, belching, flatulence, bitterness in the mouth.

7. Skin hyperpigmentation.

8. Excess accumulation of copper is characterized by red hair and a Kaiser-Fleischer ring in the cornea.

1. Headaches (especially in the temporal region are characteristic of cholestasis).

2. The development of arthritis and other pathologies of the joints - bile acids are involved in the formation of synovial fluid (provides nutrition for the articular cartilage and acts as a shock absorber).

3. Diseases of the kidneys and urinary system - excess body weight is associated with an increased risk of nephrolithiasis (a pathology accompanied by the formation of salt stones). In addition, obesity triggers the activation of the renin-angiotensin system (leading to an increase in pressure, both arterial and directly inside the renal arterioles), as well as an increase in the permeability of the renal glomeruli and damage to the renal filter.

   Study: Obesity and Kidney Disease: The Hidden Consequences of the Epidemic

4. Development of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes mellitus.

1. Coprogram is a universal and relatively inexpensive analysis. Normally assessed:

   • Consistency - in violation of the metabolism of fats, there is a fatty stool sticking to the walls of the toilet.

   • Smell.

   • The color of feces - so, the dark color of the stool is observed when eating meat food; lighter - with a predominance of dairy and vegetable products. Colorless feces (acholic) - indicates a blockade of the biliary tract or a violation of bile secretion, often observed with obstructive jaundice. Red is a bright marker of bleeding from the lower intestines, and black (due to the oxidation of hemoglobin with hydrochloric acid) is from the upper gastrointestinal tract.

   • The reaction is normally neutral or slightly alkaline.

   • Blood.

   • Slime.

   • Muscle fibers (striated and non-striated).

   • Digested and undigested plant fiber.

   • Neutral fat is normally absent. Its appearance signals a lack of enzymatic function of the pancreas and / or a violation of bile secretion, or a decrease in its formation by liver cells.

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   In children, the presence of small amounts of neutral fat may be a variant of the norm due to insufficient development of the digestive and enzymatic systems.

   • Fatty acids are one of the products in the reaction of fat breakdown under the action of lipases. Normally absent. Their presence indicates impaired absorption in the intestine due to pathologies in the outflow of bile or enzymatic insufficiency of the pancreas.

   • Soaps are formed when fatty acids bind to minerals. Also indicate a violation of the breakdown of fats.

2. GGT (gamma-glutamyltransferase) - its increase is a very early marker of cholestasis (impaired bile outflow). This enzyme is found in the cells of the liver, biliary tract and pancreas - and when these organs are destroyed, it enters the bloodstream.

   It should be borne in mind that its indicators always increase with alcohol abuse.

3. Alkaline phosphatase is another marker of bile flow disorders. Normally, it is increased during the period of active bone growth and in the 3rd trimester of pregnancy (due to bone and placental forms).

4. Analysis of amino acids in urine: assessment of the concentrations of taurine, glycine and methionine.

5. Indirectly, it can be judged by the assessment of parasitic invasion, based on the value of the following indicators:

   • Eosinophils.

   • Eosinophilic cationic protein.

   • Fecal analysis by PARASEP method (3 times with 7-day intervals).

6. Assessment of bacterial growth in the small intestine.

Recommendations for compiling a daily diet

1. Don't forget breakfast. Make your first meal as rich and balanced as possible—in other words, so that you don't remember to eat before dinner.

   The formula for an ideal breakfast: fats - up to 60%, protein - 20-40%, carbohydrates - 20%.

   The following foods are excellent as fats:

   • Avocado

   • Full fat coconut yogurt and/or cream.

   • Aged cheeses

   • Pine nuts and almonds

   • Olives

   • Walnuts, pecans and seeds

   • Cod liver

   • Tkhina

   Legumes, red fish or other fatty varieties (we recommend eliminating or minimizing river fish as much as possible due to the high degree of helminth infestation), shrimp, mussels, scallops, eggs and squid are an excellent source of protein.

   From carbohydrates, we recommend focusing on complex (which do not cause a sharp rise in glucose levels, and then the same strong decline): quinoa, buckwheat, brown rice, amaranth, gluten-free bread, millet, as well as vegetables (spinach and other leafy, broccoli , pumpkin, radish, tomatoes, cauliflower.

   Give preference to berries: strawberries, blueberries, raspberries, blackberries, blueberries - they are rich in antioxidants and have a much more favorable effect on carbohydrate metabolism than sweet fruits.

2. Eat enough fiber - it helps to fill you up faster and also prevents a sharp jump in glucose levels after eating. In addition, this is a kind of brush - a kind of broom invented by nature, cleansing the intestines.

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   A minimum of 25-30 grams of dietary fiber per day is recommended. They are found in bran, almonds, legumes, vegetables and fruits, greens, cabbage, whole grain bread and berries.

3. Remove all snacks: the most physiological is three meals a day (the only exceptions are women during lactation and athletes who are subject to exhausting and prolonged physical activity).

   Leave intervals between meals at least 4x-5 hours: give your cell receptors the opportunity to adapt from the relentlessly circulating in the blood when you receive any kind of insulin food.

4. Work with the processes of methylation, which is necessary, in particular, for the formation of bile phospholipids.

   As a laboratory diagnostic, you can check such an indicator as HOMOCYSTEIN, or pass the genetics of the folate cycle and see the presence or absence of polymorphisms in three genes: MTHFR, MTR, MTRR.

   In the analysis for organic acids in the urine, the following will be informative: an increase in the levels of adipic, succinic, suberic acids (indicating vitamin B2 deficiency); forminoglutamic acid, glycine and methylhistidine (with folic acid deficiency), methylmalonic acid (with B12 deficiency).

   In addition, other symptoms of a violation of this biochemical process will be high levels of histamine (an inflammatory mediator).

   Recommended Supplements:

   • S-adenosylmethionine is the main donor of methyl groups (400-800 mg).

   • Methylcobalamin is the most metabolically active form of vitamin B12 (1000-2000 mg).

   • Methylfolate (5-10 mg).

   • Magnesium (800-1200 mg).

   • Riboflavin-5-phosphate (50-100 mg) is the active form of vitamin B2.

   • Pyridoxal-5-phosphate - is involved in the conversion of B2 to its active form.

5. Add vegetable enzymes - they are much more stable under the influence of various temperatures and pH of digestive juices. And no, the pancreas will not "get lazy" and will not stop producing its own. Papaya is great.

1. If you have bacterial or fungal overgrowth syndrome, reduce the amount of incoming sugars—in particular, eliminate fruits, cereals, dairy products, prepared sauces, candies, cakes, and various sweeteners.

2. Eat enough protein - at least 120-130 grams per day.

3. Drink courses (although many experts recommend on an ongoing basis) phospholipids (in particular, phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylserine), as well as omega-3 fatty acids.

1. Add sources of pro- and prebiotics - start fermenting foods, and not just limited to cabbage.

Products that accelerate the process of splitting fats in the body

1. Ginger. Ginger water has been used to treat rats - the animals showed a decrease in serum cholesterol and triglyceride levels, as well as a decrease in average weight gain. In addition, the expression of one of the specific glucose transporters (GLUT2) was activated, as well as the secretion of adiponectin in adipose tissue, a hormone involved in the regulation of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism.

   Study: Ginger Water Reduces Body Weight Gain and Improves Energy Expenditure in Rats

2. Mustard (Sarepta / Russian) - Brassica juncea - a herbaceous plant widely used in Ayurveda as a medicine. Contains a large amount of polyphenols, vitamins, sterols and other biologically active components.

   It is also rich in isothiocyanate precursors, compounds with a wide range of beneficial effects, including antibacterial, antitumor activity, and modulation of fat metabolism.

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   Mustard leaves have antioxidant activity: they trap free radicals. Moreover, their use is associated with protection against oxidative stress that accompanies diabetes.

   The extract has an anti-cataract effect and prevents the development of hyperglycemia (increased concentration of glucose in the blood serum) when exposed to toxic in relation to beta cells of the pancreas that produce insulin, streptozotocin on the body of rats.

   Study: The effects of Brassica juncea L. leaf extract on obesity and lipid profiles of rats fed a high-fat/high-cholesterol diet

3. Pomegranate has been used by Eastern medicine since ancient times - for example, in its peel there is a high concentration of tannins (molecules that have binding abilities and are therefore actively used as antidotes for poisoning with lead and mercury salts, as well as used as hemostatic agents), and the juice is rich in phenols and anthocyanins, which have an antioxidant effect.

   Pomegranate seeds are a source of polyunsaturated fatty acids (particularly punicic acid).

4. Grapefruit is perhaps the most effective helper in the fight against excess fat. It contains a high concentration of the flavonoid naringin (responsible for its bitter taste), which has a powerful choleretic effect and promotes the breakdown of fats that enter our body with food.

5. Blueberries - An 8-week diet enriched with blueberries was associated with lower triglycerides and total cholesterol in obese rats and pigs. Similar changes were accompanied by the use of blueberry juice.

    

   It is believed that possible pathways involved in the regulation of dyslipidemia are associated with the expression of key enzymes involved in fat metabolism (lipoprotein lipase and fatty acid synthase).

6. Cranberries (Vaccinium oxycoccos) are another great source of antioxidants, rich in quercetin and other flavonoids.

   It was shown that the extract of these berries reduced the division of precursors of fat cells, and also reduced the accumulation of fat in them. Cranberry directly induced lipolysis (fat burning process) and suppressed the formation of many factors of lipogenesis (that is, lipid synthesis).

7. Grapes — their skin contains a polyphenol such as resveratrol, which reduces inflammation of adipose tissue, reduces the formation of pro-inflammatory signaling molecules (interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor alpha), has a cardioprotective effect and lowers blood glucose levels.

    

   Study: A Review of Biologically Active Natural Products from Mediterranean Wild Edible Plants: Benefits in the Treatment of Obesity and Its Related Disorders

8. Pineapple is an excellent source of calcium, potassium, vitamins A and C. The pulp of fresh pineapple contains bromelain (a proteolytic enzyme), which acts as an anti-inflammatory agent, and also has a positive effect on patients with dyslipidemia. The phenolic compounds contained in this fruit inhibit oxidative enzymes in the cells of the human body, doing the work of antioxidants.

   A large amount of certain dietary fibers reduce the absorption of cholesterol - thus pineapple is effective in improving the severity of the course of cardiovascular diseases. In addition, this fruit has a very high fat-binding capacity.

   Study: Physiological and molecular study on the anti-obesity effects of pineapple (Ananas comosus) juice in male Wistar rat

9. Raspberries - This ripe, sweet, and always associated with summer, berry has been shown to be effective in treating obesity in rodents.

   Various phenolic compounds (including and tannic acids) act as antioxidants in the fight against free radicals, as well as improve metabolic stability in overweight conditions.

   The extract of whole fruits has an antihypertensive effect and prevents the development of inflammatory processes.

   Study: Phenolic-enriched raspberry fruit extract (Rubus idaeus) resulted in lower weight gain, increased ambulatory activity, and elevated hepatic lipoprotein lipase and heme oxygenase-1 expression in male mice fed a high-fat diet.

10. Cinnamon - Studies have shown that it improves the activity of tissue antioxidant enzymes in obese and diabetic rats. This spice reduces total cholesterol and triglyceride levels in rodents.

    Also, the use of its aqueous extract for 12 weeks at a concentration of 250 mg / day reduced the content of malondialdehyde (formed during the degradation of PUFAs under the action of reactive oxygen species and thus serving as a bright marker of oxidative stress) and significantly increased the content of HDL (high density lipoprotein - antiatherogenic) in patients with impaired carbohydrate metabolism.

Diet for weight loss

As you know, water is the source of life: for example, most of our secrets and digestive juices consist of more than 90% of it.

The calculation of the daily requirement is very individual, but on average it is believed that for the normal functioning of the body, approximately 30 ml of pure water is required (and not in juices, soda, tea, coffee and soups) per 1 kg of weight daily.

Recent studies note its ability to reduce weight. According to German scientists, drinking at least 500 ml of water per day increases the rate of calorie burning by 30%.

A few important rules regarding the use of water:

• waking up, drink one or two glasses of water, so you start the work of the digestive tract and the whole body;

• drinking water should be about 15-30 minutes before meals to avoid a decrease in the concentration of gastric juice necessary for the digestion of food (although this issue is still being actively discussed by nutritionists and scientists)

• drink small portions every hour;

• be sure to drink while exercising in the gym;

• if you feel hungry at an odd hour, just drink a glass of water - perhaps your appetite will decrease.

• when edema appears, do not blame the water, but look for abnormalities in the functioning of the thyroid gland and / or the cardiovascular system.